This is a working overview of intranasal delivery, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-05-25. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Regulatory status varies sharply by country. Semax is registered for medical use in Russia, where it appears in formularies as a nasal solution, and it also holds registration in a small number of neighbouring states. It has no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, and it is not a scheduled controlled substance in most jurisdictions. Elsewhere it circulates mainly as laboratory material, so purity documentation comes from suppliers rather than from a national pharmacopoeia.
Semax is a synthetic peptide created in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by researchers working in Moscow. It was built from the short adrenocorticotropic hormone fragment known as ACTH(4-10), and the chain was then extended with three additional amino acids. The resulting molecule was named semax and entered clinical use in Russia in 1994. It is generally described as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent rather than as a hormone analogue.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Primary research models | Rodent studies | Largest share of published data |
| Reported markers | BDNF and NGF expression | Measured mainly in animal tissue |
| Common administration | Intranasal | Matches the registered formulation |
| Blood residence time | Minutes | Rapid enzymatic degradation |
| Evidence quality | Small trials, limited replication | Noted repeatedly in reviews |
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Published research has focused mainly on neurological and cognitive endpoints in animal models, with proposed mechanisms involving brain-derived neurotrophic factor and related signalling pathways. A substantial share of the human data originates from a limited number of research groups, and independent replication in other countries remains sparse. Regulatory status reflects that distribution: the peptide is registered as a medicine in Russia and appears in some neighbouring markets, while elsewhere it is handled as a research chemical without approved therapeutic labelling. Questions about dose-response relationships, long-term effects, and comparability across studies are still open.
Lyophilised powder is normally kept at -20 °C in a desiccated container, with some suppliers recommending -80 °C for long-term archival storage. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are the most common cause of avoidable loss, so aliquoting before freezing reduces variability between working sessions. Dissolved peptide is far less stable than the dry solid and is usually prepared fresh or held briefly at 4 °C. Aqueous solutions support both hydrolysis of the backbone and oxidation of the N-terminal methionine, and these two routes dominate degradation under ordinary laboratory conditions.
Identity and purity are confirmed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, typically monitored at 214 nanometres where the peptide bond absorbs. Mass spectrometry, either electrospray or MALDI-TOF, verifies molecular mass against the theoretical value and detects truncation or adduct formation. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping provide additional confirmation when required. The most frequently reported impurities are deletion sequences from incomplete coupling, methionine sulfoxide from oxidation, and dimeric species formed through non-covalent aggregation. Impurity profiles depend strongly on the synthesis and purification route chosen by the producer.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
== History == Mobile refrigeration with ice from the ice trade began with reefer ships and refrigerator cars (iceboxes on wheels) in the mid-19th century. The term cold chain was first used in 1908. The first effective cold store in the UK opened in 1882 at St Katharine Docks. It could hold 59,000 carcasses, and by 1911 cold storage capacity in London had reached 2.84 million carcasses. By 1930 about a thousand refrigerated meat containers were in use which could be switched from road to railway. Mobile mechanical refrigeration was invented by Frederick McKinley Jones, who co-founded Thermo King with entrepreneur Joseph A. "Joe" Numero. In 1938 Numero sold his Cinema Supplies Inc. movie sound equipment business to RCA to form the new entity, U.S. Thermo Control Company (later the Thermo King Corporation), in partnership with Jones, his engineer. Jones designed a portable air-cooling unit for trucks carrying perishable food, for which they obtained a patent on 12 July 1940, subsequent to a challenge to invent a refrigerated truck over a 1937 golf game by associates of Numero's, Werner Transportation Co. president Harry Werner, and United States Air Conditioning Co. president Al Fineberg, This technology has been frequently in use since the 1950s, when it was most often used for preserving animal-based cells or tissue. As medical breakthroughs, such as in cancer treatment, have taken place, the demand for cold chain systems has grown. The COVID-19 pandemic and its associated vaccinations, have caused vastly increased need.
The main difference between Minds and other extremely powerful artificial intelligences in fiction is that they are highly humanistic and benevolent. They are so both by design, and by their shared culture. They are often even rather eccentric. Yet, by and large, they show no wish to supplant or dominate their erstwhile creators. On the other hand, it can also be argued that to the Minds, the human-like members of the Culture amount to little more than pets, whose wants are followed on a Mind's whim. Within the Series, this dynamic is played on more than once. In 'Excession', it is also played on to put a Mind in its place – in the mythology, a Mind is not thought to be a god, still, but an artificial intelligence capable of surprise, and even fear.
=== Sources === Ellis, Richard; McCosker, John E. (1991). Great White Shark. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2529-2. Klimley, A. Peter; Ainley, David G., eds. (1996). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-415031-4. Civard-Racinais, Alexandrine (2012). Great White Shark: Myth and Reality. Firefly. ISBN 978-1-77085-102-3. Domeier, Michael L., ed. (2012). Global Perspectives on the Biology and Life History of the White Shark. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4398-4840-1. Skomal, Greg (2023). The Great White Shark Handbook. Cider Mill Press. ISBN 978-1-60433-771-6.
The basic idea of a ranking of the world's organisms goes back to Aristotle's biology. In his History of Animals, where he ranked animals over plants based on their ability to move and sense, and graded the animals by their reproductive mode, live birth being "higher" than laying cold eggs, and possession of blood, warm-blooded mammals and birds again being "higher" than "bloodless" invertebrates. Aristotle's non-religious concept of higher and lower organisms was taken up by natural philosophers during the Scholastic period to form the basis of the Scala Naturae. The scala allowed for an ordering of beings, thus forming a basis for classification where each kind of mineral, plant and animal could be slotted into place. In medieval times, the great chain was seen as a God-given and unchangeable ordering. In the Northern Renaissance, the scientific focus shifted to biology; the threefold division of the chain below humans formed the basis for Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ from 1737, where he divided the physical components of the world into the three familiar kingdoms of minerals, plants and animals.
=== Early knowledge and study === Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory, with some stone-age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as food sources, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Water bird and seabird remains have also been found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A study highlight the importance of extending healthspans, not just lifespans and especially as life expectancy rises and demographics shift. Biological aging or the healthspan-lifespan gap (LHG) comes with a great cost burden to society, including potentially rising health care costs (also depending on types and costs of treatments). Scientists have noted that "[c]hronic diseases of aging are increasing and are inflicting untold costs on human quality of life". Further reasons to prioritize healthspans as much as lifespans include global quality of life or wellbeing. A scientific review concludes that accumulating data suggests dietary restriction (DR) – mainly intermittent fasting and caloric restriction – results in many of the same beneficial changes in adult humans as in studied organisms, potentially increasing health- and lifespan. A review published a few days later provides an overview of DR as an intervention and develops a framework for a proposed field of "precision nutrigeroscience". A study published a few days later identifies circadian-regulated autophagy as a critical contributor to intermittent time-restricted fasting-mediated lifespan extension in Drosophila and suggests that only certain forms of and/or combinations with intermittent fasting – intervals during which no food but only e.g. water and tea/coffee are ingested – may be effective beyond the benefits of healthy body weight. Scientists show that and how the flavonoid Procyanidin C1 of the antioxidant grape seed extract increases the health- and lifespan of mice.
zygosity The degree to which multiple copies of a gene, chromosome, or genome have the same genetic sequence; e.g. in a diploid organism with two complete copies of its genome (one maternal and one paternal), the degree of similarity of the alleles present in each copy. Individuals carrying two different alleles for a particular gene are said to be heterozygous for that gene; individuals carrying two identical alleles are said to be homozygous for that gene. Zygosity may also be considered collectively for a group of genes, or for the entire set of genes and genetic loci comprising the genome.
In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material composing the emissive layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically conductive due to the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of the molecule, and the material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor. The organic materials can be small organic molecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers. The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut. Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of printable and flexible displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, lighting and televisions.
Chair, Financial Reporting Advisory Board. For Public Service. Diana Marjorie Parkes. Co-Founder and Patron, The Joanna Simpson Foundation. For services to Vulnerable Children Suffering from Domestic Abuse and Domestic Homicide. William James Pease-Watkin (Bill Watkin). Chief Executive, Sixth Form Colleges Association. For services to Further Education. Professor Andrew David Mark Pettegree, FBA. Historian and Author. For services to Literature. Andrew Kerry Pike, OBE. Lately Director, GREAT Britain and Northern Ireland Campaign, Cabinet Office. For Public Service. Erin Pizzey. Campaigner and Activist. For services to the Victims of Domestic Abuse. Professor Ann Prentice, OBE. Honorary Senior Visiting Fellow, MRC Epidemiology Unit, University of Cambridge. For services to British and Global Public Health Nutrition. Jessica Mary Pulay. Co-Head of Policy and Markets, UK Debt Management Office. For services to Public Finances. Professor Margaret Mary Rae. Lately President, UK Faculty of Public Health. For services to Public Health and to Public Health Standards. Dr. Mala Rao, OBE. Senior Clinical Fellow, Imperial College London. For services to Public Health, the NHS, and to Equality and Diversity. Mark Julian Read. Chief Executive Officer, WPP. For services to the Creative Industries. Simon Trevor Regis. Deputy Director, Department for Culture, Media and Sport Legal Advisers, Government Legal Department. For services to Legislation. Professor Elizabeth Jane Robertson. Professor of Developmental Biology, University of Oxford. For services to Medical Sciences.
== Budget == For the 2026 fiscal year, CLIA was budgeted US$25.2 million. The approximately 86 surveyors conduct 120 surveys annually, 112 initial/recertification and eight follow-up surveys, spending an average of up to 14 hours per survey. The staffing ratio is one clerk per three surveyors, one professional support staff per six surveyors, and one supervisory surveyor per seven surveyors. The projected workload is 7,933 compliance initial and recertification surveys, 2505 follow-up/revisit surveys of compliance laboratories, 393 validations of accredited laboratories, 92 follow-up/revisit surveys of accredited laboratories, 215 complaint surveys, and 725 proficiency testing desk reviews. The Waived Laboratory Survey Initiative is discontinued, and CLIA waivers are no longer available; PPM laboratories will not receive routine inspections.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Commercial peptide synthesis == Peptide synthesis providers are measured by the quality level and the maximum length of the synthesized peptides since it is more difficult to synthesize longer peptides at a high quality. The synthesised peptides must undergo a QC procedure by analytical HPLC and mass spectrometry. Often, amino acid analysis and sequencing is also required.
However, the exact age and provenance of CM 9401 remain uncertain due to a lack of detailed field documentation. In 2018, a paper describing tyrannosaurid teeth from the Two Medicine Formation noted a premaxillary tooth (YPM VPPU 023469) had a strong resemblance to the teeth of Sue to the exclusion of any Campanian tyrannosaurid. Additionally, the authors of this paper suggested that CM 9401 also comes from the Two Medicine Formation, as there were preservational similarities between its locality and the Willow Creek anticline, which is where the tooth was found. Notably, this would place both specimens in the Flag Butte Member of the Two Medicine Formation, which dates from 77 to 76.3 Ma, far older than any other Tyrannosaurus specimen, and directly contemporaneous with Daspletosaurus. In 2025, these specimens, with their old geologic age, were used as evidence by Charlie Scherer to suggest that the Tyrannosaurini did not evolve directly from Daspletosaurus.
Studies on the effect of drugs on trypanothione metabolism resulted in the discovery that fexinidazole is a potential oral treatment for visceral leishmaniasis. In 2006 Fairlamb and Mike Ferguson became co-directors of the Drug Discovery Unit at the University of Dundee. The new centre, opened in 2005, has facilities for high-throughput screening and medicinal chemistry. These will take the drug discovery/development process further than any other UK university, to a stage where pharmaceutical companies will have sufficient data to move into the production stage.
==== Charitable contributions tax deduction ==== Effective January 1, 2026, the law allows a tax deduction for charitable contributions made in cash by an individual who does not itemize their tax deductions. The deduction is limited to $1,000 (or $2,000 if married filing jointly). The deduction is not allowed for contributions to donor-advised funds or private non-operating foundations. Carrying over excess charitable contributions to other years is not allowed if the person does not itemize their tax deductions. Effective January 1, 2026, for individuals who itemize their tax deductions, a tax deduction is allowed only for the amount that exceeds 0.5 percent of their adjusted gross income. The law makes permanent a temporary limit on cash tax deductions for charitable contributions of up to 60 percent of their adjusted gross income to 501(c)(3) public charities. This only applies if the individual itemizes their tax deductions. Effective January 1, 2026, the tax benefit for charitable contributions made by an individual that itemizes their tax deductions is limited to 35% of the amount contributed, even if they are in a marginal tax bracket higher than 35%.
=== Relationship with Mackenzie Booth === The character was paired with Mackenzie Booth (Emily Weir) for a romance story arc in April 2020. The pair begin interacting on a regular basis when Ari uses Mac's restaurant Salt as a base to search the newspapers for employment. Ari finds support in Mac as he struggles to find a job, and his closed off nature intrigues her. Weir said that Ari is attractive to Mac because he is "drama-free" compared to her previous partner Colby Thorne. She also said "Ari seems someone who's calm and relaxed with himself." Mac is unaware that Ari served time with her brother Dean Thompson (Patrick O'Connor), so when she mentions that they have been spending time together, he warns Ari to stay away from her. However, Mac notices Ari's absence and goes to his caravan to confront him. Her "blunt approach" amuses Ari and it leads him to tell her about his past, including his stint in prison. Weir pointed out that Mac is unlikely to judge him for having "a complicated past" since she also has one. Mac makes it clear that she is still interested in Ari and the pair spend the night together. As Mackenzie leaves Ari's van in the morning, she greets John, who immediately visits Marilyn to gossip about what has gone on. An Inside Soap columnist wondered if Ari's "night of passion" had just cost his family a place to live. Ari later has "serious beef" with Tane over Mac. A love triangle was introduced into the storyline when Mac develops a strong attraction to Tane.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.
The compound is registered as a medicine in Russia, so clinical work has concentrated there. Trials elsewhere are few and generally small. This geographic concentration is a recognized limitation in evidence reviews.
Some fraction may reach the central nervous system through olfactory pathways, and this is often cited as the rationale for the nasal route. The size of that fraction in humans is not well quantified. Blood concentrations after nasal dosing are low, which complicates measurement.
Registered medical products are most often 0.1% nasal drops. Research suppliers ship lyophilized powder, usually in milligram quantities, which is dissolved before use. The active peptide is the same in both cases; presentation and excipients differ.